Al-Ashhab ME Primary Ankle Arthrodesis for Severely Comminuted Tibial Pilon Fractures. Orthopedics. 2017 Mar 1;40(2):e378-e381. doi: 10.3928/01477447-20161202-04. Epub 2016 Dec 15.
Anderson DD, Marsh JL, Brown TD The pathomechanical etiology of post-traumatic osteoarthritis following intraarticular fractures. Iowa Orthop J. 2011;31:1-20.
KELLGREN JH, LAWRENCE JS Radiological assessment of osteo-arthrosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1957 Dec;16(4):494-502. doi: 10.1136/ard.16.4.494. No abstract available.
Lau JT, Mahomed NM, Schon LC Results of an Internet survey determining the most frequently used ankle scores by AOFAS members. Foot Ankle Int. 2005 Jun;26(6):479-82. doi: 10.1177/107110070502600609.
Madeley NJ, Wing KJ, Topliss C, Penner MJ, Glazebrook MA, Younger AS Responsiveness and validity of the SF-36, Ankle Osteoarthritis Scale, AOFAS Ankle Hindfoot Score, and Foot Function Index in end stage ankle arthritis. Foot Ankle Int. 2012 Jan;33(1):57-63. doi: 10.3113/FAI.2012.0057.
Ni GX, Zhou YZ, Chen W, Xu L, Li Z, Liu SY, Lei L, Zhan LQ Different responses of articular cartilage to strenuous running and joint immobilization. Connect Tissue Res. 2016;57(2):143-51. doi: 10.3109/03008207.2015.1117457. Epub 2015 Dec 2.
Pham TM, Frich LH, Lambertsen KL, Overgaard S, Schmal H Elevation of Inflammatory Cytokines and Proteins after Intra-Articular Ankle Fracture: A Cross-Sectional Study of 47 Ankle Fracture Patients. Mediators Inflamm. 2021 Jan 8;2021:8897440. doi: 10.1155/2021/8897440. eCollection 2021.
Thomas NP, Wu WJ, Fleming BC, Wei F, Chen Q, Wei L Synovial inflammation plays a greater role in post-traumatic osteoarthritis compared to idiopathic osteoarthritis in the Hartley guinea pig knee. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2017 Dec 29;18(1):556. doi: 10.1186/s12891-017-1913-6.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
