Handaya AY, Werdana VAP Adherence to preoperative hand hygiene and sterile gowning technique among consultant surgeons, surgical residents, and nurses: a pilot study at an academic medical center in Indonesia. Patient Saf Surg. 2019 Mar 11;13:11. doi: 10.1186/s13037-019-0193-5. eCollection 2019.
Huang C, Ma W, Stack S The hygienic efficacy of different hand-drying methods: a review of the evidence. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012 Aug;87(8):791-8. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2012.02.019. Epub 2012 May 31.
Mutters R, Warnes SL The method used to dry washed hands affects the number and type of transient and residential bacteria remaining on the skin. J Hosp Infect. 2019 Apr;101(4):408-413. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2018.12.005. Epub 2018 Dec 8.
Nicolay CR Hand hygiene: an evidence-based review for surgeons. Int J Surg. 2006;4(1):53-65. doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2005.06.002. Epub 2005 Aug 1.
Sakmen KD, Sterz J, Stefanescu MC, Zabel J, Lehmann M, Ruesseler M Impact of the teaching method of the rub-in technique for learning hygienic hand disinfection in medical studies: a comparative effectiveness analysis of two techniques. GMS Hyg Infect Control. 2019 Nov 13;14:Doc17. doi: 10.3205/dgkh000332. eCollection 2019.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
