Mennitto A, Verzoni E, Peverelli G, Alessi A, Procopio G Management of Metastatic Collecting Duct Carcinoma: An Encouraging Result in a Patient Treated With Cabozantinib. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2018 Jun;16(3):e521-e523. doi: 10.1016/j.clgc.2018.03.010.
Okazaki T, Maeda A, Nishimura H, Kurosaki T, Honjo T PD-1 immunoreceptor inhibits B cell receptor-mediated signaling by recruiting src homology 2-domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase 2 to phosphotyrosine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Nov 20;98(24):13
Rikitake Y, Takai Y Interactions of the cell adhesion molecule nectin with transmembrane and peripheral membrane proteins for pleiotropic functions. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2008 Jan;65(2):253-63. doi: 10.1007/s00018-007-7290-9.
Takai Y, Ikeda W, Ogita H, Rikitake Y The immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion molecule nectin and its associated protein afadin. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2008;24:309-42. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.24.110707.175339.
Takai Y, Miyoshi J, Ikeda W, Ogita H Nectins and nectin-like molecules: roles in contact inhibition of cell movement and proliferation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2008 Aug;9(8):603-15. doi: 10.1038/nrm2457.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
