Crozier SJ, Sans MD, Guo L, D'Alecy LG, Williams JA Activation of the mTOR signalling pathway is required for pancreatic growth in protease-inhibitor-fed mice. J Physiol. 2006 Jun 15;573(Pt 3):775-86. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.106914. Epub 2006 Apr 13.
Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain--United States, 2016. JAMA. 2016 Apr 19;315(15):1624-45. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.1464.
Law R, Leal C, Dayyeh BA, Leise MD, Balderramo D, Baron TH, Cardenas A Role of immunosuppression in post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography pancreatitis after liver transplantation: a retrospective analysis. Liver Transpl. 2013 Dec;19(12):1354-60. doi: 10.1002/lt.23758.
Wu XM, Ji KQ, Wang HY, Zhao Y, Jia J, Gao XP, Zang B MicroRNA-339-3p alleviates inflammation and edema and suppresses pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell apoptosis in mice with severe acute pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury by regulating Anxa3 via the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. J Cell Biochem. 2018 Aug;119(8):6704-6714. doi: 10.1002/jcb.26859. Epub 2018 Apr 25.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
