Angst MS, Chu LF, Tingle MS, Shafer SL, Clark JD, Drover DR No evidence for the development of acute tolerance to analgesic, respiratory depressant and sedative opioid effects in humans. Pain. 2009 Mar;142(1-2):17-26. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2008.11.001. Epub 2009 Jan 9.
Ausems ME, Hug CC Jr, Stanski DR, Burm AG Plasma concentrations of alfentanil required to supplement nitrous oxide anesthesia for general surgery. Anesthesiology. 1986 Oct;65(4):362-73.
Ausems ME, Vuyk J, Hug CC Jr, Stanski DR Comparison of a computer-assisted infusion versus intermittent bolus administration of alfentanil as a supplement to nitrous oxide for lower abdominal surgery. Anesthesiology. 1988 Jun;68(6):851-61.
Billard V, Gambus PL, Chamoun N, Stanski DR, Shafer SL A comparison of spectral edge, delta power, and bispectral index as EEG measures of alfentanil, propofol, and midazolam drug effect. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1997 Jan;61(1):45-58.
Björkman S, Wada DR, Stanski DR, Ebling WF Comparative physiological pharmacokinetics of fentanyl and alfentanil in rats and humans based on parametric single-tissue models. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1994 Oct;22(5):381-410. Erratum in: J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1995 Aug;23(4):438.
Ebling WF, Lee EN, Stanski DR Understanding pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics through computer stimulation: I. The comparative clinical profiles of fentanyl and alfentanil. Anesthesiology. 1990 Apr;72(4):650-8.
Gourlay GK, Wilson PR, Glynn CJ Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of methadone during the perioperative period. Anesthesiology. 1982 Dec;57(6):458-67.
Gregg KM, Varvel JR, Shafer SL Application of semilinear canonical correlation to the measurement of opioid drug effect. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1992 Dec;20(6):611-35.
Hughes MA, Glass PS, Jacobs JR Context-sensitive half-time in multicompartment pharmacokinetic models for intravenous anesthetic drugs. Anesthesiology. 1992 Mar;76(3):334-41.
Kern SE, Stanski DR Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenously administered anesthetic drugs: concepts and lessons for drug development. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Jul;84(1):153-7. doi: 10.1038/clpt.2008.80. Epub 2008 May 7. Review.
Kharasch ED, Hoffer C, Walker A, Sheffels P Disposition and miotic effects of oral alfentanil: a potential noninvasive probe for first-pass cytochrome P4503A activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2003 Mar;73(3):199-208.
Kharasch ED, Walker A, Hoffer C, Sheffels P Intravenous and oral alfentanil as in vivo probes for hepatic and first-pass cytochrome P450 3A activity: noninvasive assessment by use of pupillary miosis. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2004 Nov;76(5):452-66.
Kuipers JA, Boer F, Olofsen E, Bovill JG, Burm AG Recirculatory pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of rocuronium in patients: the influence of cardiac output. Anesthesiology. 2001 Jan;94(1):47-55.
Lemmens HJ, Dyck JB, Shafer SL, Stanski DR Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling in drug development: application to the investigational opioid trefentanil. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994 Sep;56(3):261-71.
Lemmens HJ, Egan TD, Fiset P, Stanski DR Pharmacokinetic/dynamic assessment in drug development: application to the investigational opioid mirfentanil. Anesth Analg. 1995 Jun;80(6):1206-11.
Maitre PO, Ausems ME, Vozeh S, Stanski DR Evaluating the accuracy of using population pharmacokinetic data to predict plasma concentrations of alfentanil. Anesthesiology. 1988 Jan;68(1):59-67.
Maitre PO, Stanski DR Bayesian forecasting improves the prediction of intraoperative plasma concentrations of alfentanil. Anesthesiology. 1988 Nov;69(5):652-9.
Maitre PO, Vozeh S, Heykants J, Thomson DA, Stanski DR Population pharmacokinetics of alfentanil: the average dose-plasma concentration relationship and interindividual variability in patients. Anesthesiology. 1987 Jan;66(1):3-12.
Minto CF, Schnider TW, Shafer SL Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of remifentanil. II. Model application. Anesthesiology. 1997 Jan;86(1):24-33.
Phimmasone S, Kharasch ED A pilot evaluation of alfentanil-induced miosis as a noninvasive probe for hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) activity in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001 Dec;70(6):505-17.
Scott JC, Cooke JE, Stanski DR Electroencephalographic quantitation of opioid effect: comparative pharmacodynamics of fentanyl and sufentanil. Anesthesiology. 1991 Jan;74(1):34-42.
Scott JC, Ponganis KV, Stanski DR EEG quantitation of narcotic effect: the comparative pharmacodynamics of fentanyl and alfentanil. Anesthesiology. 1985 Mar;62(3):234-41.
Scott JC, Stanski DR Decreased fentanyl and alfentanil dose requirements with age. A simultaneous pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1987 Jan;240(1):159-66.
Segre G Kinetics of interaction between drugs and biological systems. Farmaco Sci. 1968 Oct;23(10):907-18.
Shafer SL, Gregg KM Algorithms to rapidly achieve and maintain stable drug concentrations at the site of drug effect with a computer-controlled infusion pump. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1992 Apr;20(2):147-69.
Shafer SL, Stanski DR Improving the clinical utility of anesthetic drug pharmacokinetics. Anesthesiology. 1992 Mar;76(3):327-30.
Shafer SL, Varvel JR, Aziz N, Scott JC Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl administered by computer-controlled infusion pump. Anesthesiology. 1990 Dec;73(6):1091-102.
Shafer SL, Varvel JR Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and rational opioid selection. Anesthesiology. 1991 Jan;74(1):53-63.
Stanski DR, Hug CC Jr Alfentanil--a kinetically predictable narcotic analgesic. Anesthesiology. 1982 Dec;57(6):435-8.
Upton RN, Semple TJ, Macintyre PE Pharmacokinetic optimisation of opioid treatment in acute pain therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1997 Sep;33(3):225-44. Review.
Vuyk J, Lim T, Engbers FH, Burm AG, Vletter AA, Bovill JG Pharmacodynamics of alfentanil as a supplement to propofol or nitrous oxide for lower abdominal surgery in female patients. Anesthesiology. 1993 Jun;78(6):1036-45; discussion 23A.
A Hydromorphone High Resolution Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Fingerprint as the Basis for Identifying Sex Differences in Opioid Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.