Chang C, Tsai G, Hsieh CJ Psychological, immunological and physiological effects of a Laughing Qigong Program (LQP) on adolescents. Complement Ther Med. 2013 Dec;21(6):660-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2013.09.004. Epub 2013 Sep 13.
Fernandes SC, Arriaga P The effects of clown intervention on worries and emotional responses in children undergoing surgery. J Health Psychol. 2010 Apr;15(3):405-15. doi: 10.1177/1359105309350231.
Hedén LE, von Essen L, Ljungman G Effect of morphine in needle procedures in children with cancer. Eur J Pain. 2011 Nov;15(10):1056-60. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2011.05.010. Epub 2011 Jun 15.
Hernandez PE, Rabadan RJ Hospitalization, a break in the child´s life. Educational attention in infantile hospitalized population. Perspectiva Educacional. 2013 Ene; 52 (1):167-181
Kimata H Effect of humor on allergen-induced wheal reactions. JAMA. 2001 Feb 14;285(6):738.
Mifflin KA, Hackmann T, Chorney JM Streamed video clips to reduce anxiety in children during inhaled induction of anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2012 Nov;115(5):1162-7. doi: 10.1213/ANE.0b013e31824d5224. Epub 2012 Oct 9.
Vagnoli L, Caprilli S, Robiglio A, Messeri A Clown doctors as a treatment for preoperative anxiety in children: a randomized, prospective study. Pediatrics. 2005 Oct;116(4):e563-7.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.