Abboud PA, Kendall JL Ultrasound guidance for vascular access. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2004 Aug;22(3):749-73. Review.
Blaivas M, Adhikari S An unseen danger: frequency of posterior vessel wall penetration by needles during attempts to place internal jugular vein central catheters using ultrasound guidance. Crit Care Med. 2009 Aug;37(8):2345-9; quiz 2359. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181a067d4.
Blaivas M, Brannam L, Fernandez E Short-axis versus long-axis approaches for teaching ultrasound-guided vascular access on a new inanimate model. Acad Emerg Med. 2003 Dec;10(12):1307-11.
Matalon TA, Silver B US guidance of interventional procedures. Radiology. 1990 Jan;174(1):43-7.
Shah A, Smith A, Panchatsharam S Ultrasound-guided subclavian venous catheterisation - is this the way forward? A narrative review. Int J Clin Pract. 2013 Aug;67(8):726-32. doi: 10.1111/ijcp.12146. Review.
Long-versus Short-Axis Ultrasound Guidance for Subclavian Vein Cannulation
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
