Organophosphate Poisoning — Farming, Personal Protective Equipment, Nepal
Citation(s)
1 FAO. International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, 2002.
16 Matthews GA. Attitudes and behaviours regarding use of crop protection products—A survey of more than 8500 smallholders in 26 countries. Crop Prot. 2008: 27:834-846.
23 Shrestha P, Koirala P, Tamrakar AS. Knowledge, practice and use of pesticides among commerical vegetable growers of Dhading district, Nepal. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment. 2010;11:95--100.
29 Lee SA, Yang SC. Studies on contamination patterns, penetration of pesticides through clothing and spray operator protection. The Planter 1991;67(778):9-40.
31 Shaw A, Nomula R, Patel B. Protective clothing and application control for pesticide applicators in India: A field study. ASTM special technical publication 2000;342-53.
32 Shaw A. Field evaluation of protective clothing worn by pesticide applicators in hot climates. International Pest Control 2008;May/June:152-5.
34 Neupane D. Pesticides exposure and its health effects among commercial vegetable farmers in Nepal. (unpublished dissertation). Esbjerg: University of Southern Denmark; 2012.
35 Pesticide Registration and Management Section. Annual Report. Plant Protection Directorate, Department of Agriculture, Haribhawan. Lalitpur: Nepal.2009;pp.41.
36 Agri-business Promotion and Statistics Division. Statistical information on Nepalese agriculture 2007/08. Government of Nepal, 2008.
37 World Health Organization. The WHO recommended classifications of pesticides by hazard and guidelines to classification 2009. World Health Organization. Geneva: Switzerland. 2010.
39 Axinn WG, Yabiku ST. Social change, the social organization or families, and fertility limitation. American Journal of Sociology. 2001;106:1219-61.
40 Shivakoti GP, Axinn WG, Bhandari P, Chehetri N. The impact of community context on land use in an agricultural society. Population and Environment. 1999;20(3):191-213.
41 District Agricultural Office. Chitwan: District Agriculture Office; 2011.
42 National Library of Medicine. Pubmed Health. A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. Last reviewed: May 28, 2013. Cholinesterase.
43 EQM Research I. Test-mate cholinesterase test system Instruction Manual. 2003. Available from: www.eqmresearch.com.
44 EQM Research I. Description of the test-mate CHE. 2012. Available from: www.eqmresearch.com.
46 Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. 2012. Cholinesterase. www.ilo.org/oshenc.
5 Fait A, Iversen B, Tiramani M, Visentin S, Maroni M. Preventing health risks from the use of pesticides in agriculture. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2001.
50 Food and Agricultural Organization. Guidelines for personal protection when working with pesticides in tropical climates. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization; 1990.
6 Acutely toxic pesticides: initial input on extent of problem and guidance for risk management. Fourth session of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety. Doc number: IFCS/FORUM-IV/10w; April 2003.
7 Epidemiology of pesticide poisoning: harmonized collection of data on human pesticide exposure in selected countries. Geneva: International Programme on Chemical Safety/WHO; 2004.
Atreya K, Sitaula BK, Overgaard H, Bajracharya RM, Sharma S Knowledge, attitude and practices of pesticide use and acetylcholinesterase depression among farm workers in Nepal. Int J Environ Health Res. 2012;22(5):401-15. doi: 10.1080/09603123.2011.650154. Epub 2012 Jan 24.
Bhanti M, Shukla G, Taneja A Contamination levels of organochlorine pesticides and farmers' knowledge, perception, practices in rural India: a case study. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2004 Nov;73(5):787-93.
Cataño HC, Carranza E, Huamaní C, Hernández AF Plasma cholinesterase levels and health symptoms in peruvian farm workers exposed to organophosphate pesticides. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 2008 Jul;55(1):153-9. Epub 2007 Dec 19.
Gomes J, Lloyd OL, Revitt DM The influence of personal protection, environmental hygiene and exposure to pesticides on the health of immigrant farm workers in a desert country. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1999 Jan;72(1):40-5.
Hofmann JN, Carden A, Fenske RA, Ruark HE, Keifer MC Evaluation of a clinic-based cholinesterase test kit for the Washington State Cholinesterase Monitoring Program. Am J Ind Med. 2008 Jul;51(7):532-8. doi: 10.1002/ajim.20588.
Jeyaratnam J Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem. World Health Stat Q. 1990;43(3):139-44.
Karunamoorthi K, Mohammed A, Jemal Z Peasant association member's knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards safe use of pesticide management. Am J Ind Med. 2011 Dec;54(12):965-70. doi: 10.1002/ajim.21008. Epub 2011 Sep 14.
Keifer MC Effectiveness of interventions in reducing pesticide overexposure and poisonings. Am J Prev Med. 2000 May;18(4 Suppl):80-9. Review.
Khan DA, Shabbir S, Majid M, Ahad K, Naqvi TA, Khan FA Risk assessment of pesticide exposure on health of Pakistani tobacco farmers. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2010 Mar;20(2):196-204. doi: 10.1038/jes.2009.13. Epub 2009 Jun 17. Erratum in: J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2010 Sep;20(6):571. Ahad, Karam [added].
Konradsen F Acute pesticide poisoning--a global public health problem. Dan Med Bull. 2007 Feb;54(1):58-9.
Machado-Neto JG, Matuo T, Matuo YK Semiquantitative evaluation of dermal exposure to granulated insecticides in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) crop and efficiency of individual protective equipment. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1996 Dec;57(6):946-51.
Palis FG, Flor RJ, Warburton H, Hossain M Our farmers at risk: behaviour and belief system in pesticide safety. J Public Health (Oxf). 2006 Mar;28(1):43-8. Epub 2006 Jan 25.
Plianbangchang P, Jetiyanon K, Wittaya-Areekul S Pesticide use patterns among small-scale farmers: a case study from Phitsanulok, Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2009 Mar;40(2):401-10.
Recena MC, Caldas ED, Pires DX, Pontes ER Pesticides exposure in Culturama, Brazil--knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Environ Res. 2006 Oct;102(2):230-6. Epub 2006 Feb 21.
Singh B, Gupta MK Pattern of use of personal protective equipments and measures during application of pesticides by agricultural workers in a rural area of Ahmednagar district, India. Indian J Occup Environ Med. 2009 Dec;13(3):127-30. doi: 10.4103/0019-5278.58915.
Sosan MB, Akingbohungbe AE Occupational insecticide exposure and perception of safety measures among cacao farmers in southwestern Nigeria. Arch Environ Occup Health. 2009 Fall;64(3):185-93. doi: 10.1080/19338240903241077.
Yabiku ST, Schlabach S Social Change and the Relationships between Education and Employment. Popul Res Policy Rev. 2009 Aug 1;28(4):533-549.
Yassin MM, Abu Mourad TA, Safi JM Knowledge, attitude, practice, and toxicity symptoms associated with pesticide use among farm workers in the Gaza Strip. Occup Environ Med. 2002 Jun;59(6):387-93. Erratum in: Occup Environ Med 2002 Sep;59(9):650.
Prevention of Farmers' Exposure to Pesticides With Relevant Personal Protective Equipment in Chitwan District of Nepal
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
