Amato MP, Ponziani G, Siracusa G, Sorbi S Cognitive dysfunction in early-onset multiple sclerosis: a reappraisal after 10 years. Arch Neurol. 2001 Oct;58(10):1602-6.
Benedict R Brief Visuospatial Memory Test - Revised: Professional Manual. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1997.
Benedict RH, Zivadinov R Predicting neuropsychological abnormalities in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 2006 Jun 15;245(1-2):67-72. Epub 2006 Apr 19.
Benedict RH, Zivadinov R Risk factors for and management of cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2011 May 10;7(6):332-42. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2011.61. Review.
Fischer JS, Rudick RA, Cutter GR, Reingold SC The Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite Measure (MSFC): an integrated approach to MS clinical outcome assessment. National MS Society Clinical Outcomes Assessment Task Force. Mult Scler. 1999 Aug;5(4):244-50. Review.
Simmons RD, Tribe KL, McDonald EA Living with multiple sclerosis: longitudinal changes in employment and the importance of symptom management. J Neurol. 2010 Jun;257(6):926-36. doi: 10.1007/s00415-009-5441-7. Epub 2010 Jan 19.
Smith A Symbol digit modalities test: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services, 1982.
Effects of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTHAR Gel) on Recovery From Cognitive Relapses in Multiple Sclerosis
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.