Fisher JS Environmental anti-androgens and male reproductive health: focus on phthalates and testicular dysgenesis syndrome. Reproduction. 2004 Mar;127(3):305-15. Review.
Fu Z, Zhao F, Chen K, Xu J, Li P, Xia D, Wu Y Association between urinary phthalate metabolites and risk of breast cancer and uterine leiomyoma. Reprod Toxicol. 2017 Dec;74:134-142. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.09.009. Epub 2017 Sep 23.
Jacobs RJ, Lou JQ, Ownby RL, Caballero J A systematic review of eHealth interventions to improve health literacy. Health Informatics J. 2016 Jun;22(2):81-98. doi: 10.1177/1460458214534092. Epub 2014 Jun 10. Review.
Sharma S, Ashley JM, Hodgson A, Nisker J Views of pregnant women and clinicians regarding discussion of exposure to phthalate plasticizers. Reprod Health. 2014 Jun 21;11:47. doi: 10.1186/1742-4755-11-47.
Wang IJ, Karmaus WJ, Chen SL, Holloway JW, Ewart S Effects of phthalate exposure on asthma may be mediated through alterations in DNA methylation. Clin Epigenetics. 2015 Mar 15;7:27. doi: 10.1186/s13148-015-0060-x. eCollection 2015.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.