Chen ML, Chen JS, Tang CL, Mao IF The internal exposure of Taiwanese to phthalate--an evidence of intensive use of plastic materials. Environ Int. 2008 Jan;34(1):79-85. Epub 2007 Aug 31.
Du YY, Guo N, Wang YX, Hua X, Deng TR, Teng XM, Yao YC, Li YF Urinary phthalate metabolites in relation to serum anti-Müllerian hormone and inhibin B levels among women from a fertility center: a retrospective analysis. Reprod Health. 2018 Feb 23;15(1):33. doi: 10.1186/s12978-018-0469-8.
Jurewicz J, Hanke W Exposure to phthalates: reproductive outcome and children health. A review of epidemiological studies. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2011 Jun;24(2):115-41. doi: 10.2478/s13382-011-0022-2. Epub 2011 May 19. Review.
Koch HM, Lorber M, Christensen KL, Pälmke C, Koslitz S, Brüning T Identifying sources of phthalate exposure with human biomonitoring: results of a 48h fasting study with urine collection and personal activity patterns. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2013 Nov;216(6):672-81. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.12.002. Epub 2013 Jan 18.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
