Dykstra DD, Sidi AA Treatment of detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia with botulinum A toxin: a double-blind study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1990 Jan;71(1):24-6.
Elbadawi A, Schenk EA A new theory of the innervation of bladder musculature. 4. Innervation of the vesicourethral junction and external urethral sphincter. J Urol. 1974 May;111(5):613-5.
Fantl JA Behavioral intervention for community-dwelling individuals with urinary incontinence. Urology. 1998 Feb;51(2A Suppl):30-4. Review.
Kuo HC Effectiveness of baclofen plus terazosin treatment in patients with lower urinary tract symptoms caused by spastic urethral sphincter. Tzu Chi Med J 12:141-148, 2000.
Kuo HC Videourodynamic evaluation of the pathophysiology of lower urinary tract symptoms in neurologically intact women. Tzu Chi Med J 11:203-213,1999.
Kvirkvelia L Neocortical theta activity during learning in cats [proceedings]. Act Nerv Super (Praha). 1977 Mar;19(1):40-1.
McGuire EJ, Savastano JA Urodynamic studies in enuresis and the nonneurogenic neurogenic bladder. J Urol. 1984 Aug;132(2):299-302.
Nitti VW, Fiske J Cystometrogram versus cystometrogram plus voiding pressure-flow studies in women with lower urinary tract symptoms. J Urol 161(Suppl):201,1999.
Schurch B, Stöhrer M, Kramer G, Schmid DM, Gaul G, Hauri D Botulinum-A toxin for treating detrusor hyperreflexia in spinal cord injured patients: a new alternative to anticholinergic drugs? Preliminary results. J Urol. 2000 Sep;164(3 Pt 1):692-7.
Steinhardt GF, Naseer S, Cruz OA Botulinum toxin: novel treatment for dramatic urethral dilatation associated with dysfunctional voiding. J Urol. 1997 Jul;158(1):190-1.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
