Calvet X, Vergara M, Brullet E, Gisbert JP, Campo R Addition of a second endoscopic treatment following epinephrine injection improves outcome in high-risk bleeding ulcers. Gastroenterology. 2004 Feb;126(2):441-50. Review.
Cappell MS, Friedel D Initial management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding: from initial evaluation up to gastrointestinal endoscopy. Med Clin North Am. 2008 May;92(3):491-509, xi. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2008.01.005. Review.
Cheung FK, Lau JY Management of massive peptic ulcer bleeding. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2009 Jun;38(2):231-43. doi: 10.1016/j.gtc.2009.03.003. Review.
Chung SC, Leung JW, Leung FW Effect of submucosal epinephrine injection on local gastric blood flow. A study using laser Doppler flowmetry and reflectance spectrophotometry. Dig Dis Sci. 1990 Aug;35(8):1008-11.
Cook DJ, Guyatt GH, Salena BJ, Laine LA Endoscopic therapy for acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology. 1992 Jan;102(1):139-48.
Enestvedt BK, Gralnek IM, Mattek N, Lieberman DA, Eisen G An evaluation of endoscopic indications and findings related to nonvariceal upper-GI hemorrhage in a large multicenter consortium. Gastrointest Endosc. 2008 Mar;67(3):422-9. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2007.09.024. Epub 2008 Jan 18.
Ferguson CB, Mitchell RM Non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Ulster Med J. 2006 Jan;75(1):32-9. Review.
Green FW Jr, Kaplan MM, Curtis LE, Levine PH Effect of acid and pepsin on blood coagulation and platelet aggregation. A possible contributor prolonged gastroduodenal mucosal hemorrhage. Gastroenterology. 1978 Jan;74(1):38-43.
Hui WM, Ng MM, Lok AS, Lai CL, Lau YN, Lam SK A randomized comparative study of laser photocoagulation, heater probe, and bipolar electrocoagulation in the treatment of actively bleeding ulcers. Gastrointest Endosc. 1991 May-Jun;37(3):299-304.
Kovacs TO Management of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2008 Dec;10(6):535-42. Review.
Kubba AK, Palmer KR Role of endoscopic injection therapy in the treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer. Br J Surg. 1996 Apr;83(4):461-8. Review.
Laine L, McQuaid KR Endoscopic therapy for bleeding ulcers: an evidence-based approach based on meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009 Jan;7(1):33-47; quiz 1-2. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2008.08.016. Epub 2008 Aug 16.
Laine L, Stein C, Sharma V A prospective outcome study of patients with clot in an ulcer and the effect of irrigation. Gastrointest Endosc. 1996 Feb;43(2 Pt 1):107-10.
Peter S, Wilcox CM Modern endoscopic therapy of peptic ulcer bleeding. Dig Dis. 2008;26(4):291-9. doi: 10.1159/000177011. Epub 2009 Jan 30. Review.
Pilotto A, Maggi S, Noale M, Franceschi M, Parisi G, Crepaldi G; IPOD Investigators Development and validation of a new questionnaire for the evaluation of upper gastrointestinal symptoms in the elderly population: a multicenter study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010 Feb;65(2):174-8. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glp073. Epub 2009 Jun 15.
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.