Astellas Pharma US Prograf (tacrolimus) [package insert]. U. S. Food and Drug Administra-tion website. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2012/050709s031lbl.pdf. Revised May 2018. Accessed Feburary 7, 2020.
Hebert MF Contributions of hepatic and intestinal metabolism and P-glycoprotein to cyclosporine and tacrolimus oral drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 1997 Sep 15;27(2-3):201-214. doi: 10.1016/s0169-409x(97)00043-4.
Hesselink DA, Bouamar R, Elens L, van Schaik RH, van Gelder T The role of pharmacogenetics in the disposition of and response to tacrolimus in solid organ transplantation. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2014 Feb;53(2):123-39. doi: 10.1007/s40262-013-0120-3.
Kuypers DR, Claes K, Evenepoel P, Maes B, Vanrenterghem Y Clinical efficacy and toxicity profile of tacrolimus and mycophenolic acid in relation to combined long-term pharmacokinetics in de novo renal allograft recipients. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2004 May;75(5):434-47. doi: 10.1016/j.clpt.2003.12.009.
Przepiorka D, Devine S, Fay J, Uberti J, Wingard J Practical considerations in the use of tacrolimus for allogeneic marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1999 Nov;24(10):1053-6. doi: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1702032.
Staatz CE, Tett SE Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of tacrolimus in solid organ transplantation. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2004;43(10):623-53. doi: 10.2165/00003088-200443100-00001.
Thomson AW, Bonham CA, Zeevi A Mode of action of tacrolimus (FK506): molecular and cellular mechanisms. Ther Drug Monit. 1995 Dec;17(6):584-91. doi: 10.1097/00007691-199512000-00007.
Undre NA Pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus-based combination therapies. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2003 May;18 Suppl 1:i12-5. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfg1029.
US Department of Health and Human Services Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE). 5.0. National Institutes of Health; 2017. https://ctep.cancer.gov/protocolDevelopment/electronic_applications/docs/CTCAE_v5_Quick_Reference_5x7.pdf
Interventional studies are often prospective and are specifically tailored to evaluate direct impacts of treatment or preventive measures on disease.
Observational studies are often retrospective and are used to assess potential causation in exposure-outcome relationships and therefore influence preventive methods.
Expanded access is a means by which manufacturers make investigational new drugs available, under certain circumstances, to treat a patient(s) with a serious disease or condition who cannot participate in a controlled clinical trial.
Clinical trials are conducted in a series of steps, called phases - each phase is designed to answer a separate research question.
Phase 1: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase 2: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase 3: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely.
Phase 4: Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use.
